Incidence refers to the number of new cases of a disorder identified in a specified time period.

Prevalence refers to the number of people who are living with the disorder in a given time period.

Worldwide, it is estimated that over 55 million people are living with dementia, with an average of nearly 10 million new cases every year (World Health Organization, 2023). Dementia is less common in individuals under the age of 65 years, with approximately 3.9 million individuals living with early-onset dementia (Hendricks et al., 2022). The estimated incidence of mild cognitive impairment increases with increased age. The estimated number of new diagnoses of mild cognitive impairment each year per every 1,000 individuals is approximately 22.5 for individuals aged 75–79 years, 60.1 for individuals aged 80–84 years, and 60.1 for individuals aged 85 years or older (Gillis et al., 2019).

Estimates of the incidence and prevalence of the specific types of dementia seen within commonly associated neurodegenerative diseases are as follows:

Alzheimer’s disease: Within the United States, approximately 6.7 million people over the age of 65 years are living with Alzheimer’s dementia (Alzheimer’s Association, 2023a).

Frontotemporal dementia: Worldwide, approximately 15–22 of every 100,000 individuals are living with frontotemporal dementia (Knopman & Roberts, 2011). Approximately 2.7–4.1 of every 100,000 individuals receive a new diagnosis each year (Onyike & Diehl-Schmid, 2013). Within the United States, an estimated 50,000–60,000 people are currently living with the two types of frontotemporal dementia: primary progressive aphasia and behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (Alzheimer’s Association, 2023c).

Huntington’s disease: Within the United States, approximately 32% of Medicare recipients who were diagnosed with Huntington’s disease have a diagnosis of dementia (Nguyen et al., 2022). Huntington’s disease is estimated to impact 13.1–15.2 of every 100,000 individuals (Exuzides et al., 2022).

Lewy body dementia: Within the United States, over 1 million people are living with Lewy body dementia (National Institutes of Health, 2019). Based on statistics reported from Medicare beneficiaries, it is estimated that 110–120 of every 100,000 individuals are diagnosed with Lewy body dementia in the United States each year (Desai et al., 2022).

Parkinson’s disease: Approximately 24%–31% of individuals with Parkinson’s disease have dementia (Aarsland et al., 2005). Based upon projected estimates by Yang et al. (2020), approximately 290,000–375,100 individuals are currently living with Parkinson’s disease–associated dementia.

Vascular dementia: Worldwide, it is estimated that 14.9 of every 100,000 people are living with vascular dementia (Hendriks et al., 2021).

Of note, individuals may have mixed dementia, or dementia due to multiple contributing disease processes. Although studies suggest that the prevalence of mixed dementia is higher than previously recognized, no exact estimates of its incidence and prevalence currently exist; however, the likelihood of having mixed dementia increases with age, with the highest prevalence in individuals aged 85 years and older (Alzheimer’s Association, 2022).

The proportion of older adults with dementia declined from 2011 to 2019 (Freedman & Cornman 2023). It is suspected that reasons for this decline include increased efficacy of treatment for the risk factors associated with dementia and higher cognitive reserves (i.e., higher education levels) seen in successive birth cohorts (Zissimopoulos et al., 2018). Despite this trend, it is expected that the absolute number of people affected by dementia will increase over time due to increased life expectancy and population growth (GBD 2019 Dementia Forecasting Collaborators, 2022). This is mainly due to the fact that age is the greatest risk factor of dementia, with prevalence doubling every 5 years after age 65 years (Fiest et al., 2016).

The signs and symptoms of dementia differ depending on the cause and the stage. Although late-stage signs and symptoms are similar across etiologies, early-stage symptoms can vary considerably. For example, individuals with frontotemporal dementia may develop primary progressive aphasia, a gradual loss of language function with relatively well-preserved memory, while individuals with Alzheimer’s disease may experience significant changes in memory (Hegde, 2006). See the National Institutes of Health’s resource on understanding different types of dementia for further information.

In general, individuals with dementia experience a gradual loss of cognitive and/or motor functions. As the disease progresses, early symptoms intensify, eventually affecting the ability to communicate effectively and function independently.

Cognitive Communication

Cognitive decline is a core feature in all types of dementia and may result in cognitive-communication deficits and/or reduced communicative participation. However, not every person with dementia will experience deficits in all areas listed below, and symptoms can vary depending on the underlying neuropathology, the stage of the disease, and individual differences. Individuals with mild cognitive impairment or dementia experience a decline in one or more of the following domains.

Attention

• easily distracted
• loses track of the topic of conversation
• difficulty attending, unless input is restricted/simplified, in the absence of hearing loss
• decreased information-processing speed—thinking/processing takes longer than usual

Memory

• short-term/working memory deficits—rapid forgetting of new information
• long-term memory deficits, including difficulty recalling names of family and friends
• episodic memory deficits, including difficulty remembering autobiographical events, situations, and experiences
• difficulty acquiring and encoding information (e.g., appointments or events, new routines) without specific supports or strategies

Executive Functioning

• difficulty setting goals and planning, including increased reliance on others to plan activities and/or make decisions
• poor judgment, impaired reasoning, and impaired problem-solving abilities (e.g., making decisions without regard to safety)
• difficulty multi-tasking and handling complex tasks
• difficulty responding to feedback
• poor self-monitoring and difficulty correcting own errors
• lacks inhibition
• lacks mental flexibility
• misses the point of a conversation

Visuospatial and Perceptual Skills

• difficulty completing familiar activities or navigating familiar environments
• difficulty recognizing familiar surroundings (e.g., people, common objects, sounds)
• difficulty finding objects that are in direct view, independent of visual acuity
• other visuo-perceptual difficulties, such as trouble with depth perception and sensitivity to light

Social Communication

• difficulty starting a conversation
• difficulty maintaining the topic of a conversation
• difficulty interpreting facial expressions
• apragmatism—difficulty conveying or comprehending the intended meaning of a message
• difficulty with prosody

Orientation

People with dementia may experience lack of orientation to

• person (self, care partners, or familiar others);
• time (year, month, date, or time of day);
• place (current location, city, or state); and/or
• situation (general circumstances of what they are doing and why they are doing it).

Language

• Less concise (empty) discourse with fewer ideas
• Economy of utterances (using fewer words) and stereotyped speech.
• Repetitious/perseverative language (e.g., asking the same question repeatedly).
• Word-finding difficulties signaled by long latencies, paraphasias, and word substitutions.
• Tangential language—communication that strays from the original topic.
• Circumlocution—using more language than is necessary to express an idea.
• Grammatical errors (e.g., omission or incorrect use of articles, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs).
• Use of jargon and loss of meaningful speech.
• Impaired ability to compose meaningful written language.
• Difficulty understanding spoken and written language. Auditory and reading comprehension may be impaired to different extents and may decline differently as the disease progresses.
• Difficulty following multistep commands.
• Echolalia—repetition of utterances produced by others.

People who are multilingual may make errors in selecting and maintaining appropriate language during conversation (Friedland & Miller, 1999) and may use only their first acquired language (Kokorelias et al., 2017; Mendez et al., 1999).

Behavioral and Psychosocial

• anger and aggression
• anxiety or agitation
• forgetfulness and confusion
• hallucinations and delusion
• impulsive behavior
• repetitive actions
• paranoia
• wandering and getting lost
• difficulty sleeping
• mood fluctuations, including agitation and crying
• negative reaction to questioning
• loss of initiative and motivation

Responsive Behaviors

Behavioral and psychosocial symptoms are common in dementia (see, e.g., Müller-Spahn, 2003). Individuals with dementia often exhibit responsive behaviors—atypical behaviors in response to stimuli that they may perceive as stressors in the environment. Responsive behaviors are often perceived or labeled as aggressive behavior by the care partners. These behaviors may occur as a reaction to unmet needs (e.g., pain), responses to the environment (e.g., overcrowding), expressions of psychosocial needs (e.g., depression), and resistance to care partners and other individuals (Yous et al., 2019; Song et al., 2019).

Behavioral and psychosocial changes can lead to frustration and misunderstanding between the individual with dementia and their care partner. It is important for care partners to consider why the behavior is occurring (e.g., to communicate a message) and to explore ways to facilitate better communication (e.g., react differently, be understanding, modify/adapt to the environment, focus on a different activity).

See Behaviors: How to Respond When Dementia Causes Unpredictable Behaviors [PDF] from the Alzheimer’s Association for more information.

Eating, Feeding, and Swallowing Difficulties

Cognitive changes, such as those that occur in dementia, can significantly impact safe and effective swallowing (Winchester & Winchester, 2015). Swallowing function changes as part of normal aging (Namasivayam-MacDonald et al., 2018); however, these changes may appear sooner or be more pronounced in individuals with dementia (Groher, 2015).

It is estimated that 32.7%–86.6% of individuals with dementia experience swallowing impairment, with increased likelihood of dysphagia as disease course progresses (DeStefano et al., 2020; Espinosa-Val et al., 2020; Michel et al., 2018).

Cognitive and behavioral changes associated with dementia can also have an impact on eating. Individuals may progressively

• have difficulty shopping for groceries and planning and preparing meals independently (Arrighi et al., 2013; Hickey, Cleary, et al., 2018);
• forget to eat, eat less often, or have difficulty determining the need to eat (Arrighi et al., 2013; Bourgeois & Hickey, 2009);
• experience hyperphagia, or excessive eating, caused by an extreme unsatisfied drive to consume food;
• become impulsive when eating, resulting in self-feeding at an excessive rate or too large of a bite and/or sip size;
• exhibit pocketing or display poor awareness of food that is already within the oral cavity when eating;
• have decreased carryover of previously effective feeding and/or swallowing strategies as the disease progresses; or
• become more distracted during mealtime and have difficulty self-feeding, recognizing foods, or using various eating utensils (Aselage & Amella, 2011; Bourgeois & Hickey, 2009; Lee & Song, 2015; Rogus-Pulia et al., 2015; Wu & Lin, 2015).

Eating and swallowing difficulties may increase the risk of choking and aspiration pneumonia (Bourgeois & Hickey, 2009) and may eventually result in malnutrition, dehydration, weight loss (Hanson et al., 2013; Jensen et al., 2013), overall compromised general health, and mortality.

Alzheimer’s disease is the most common cause of dementia, accounting for an estimated 60%–80% of all cases (Alzheimer’s Association, 2023b).

The remaining cases are accounted for by vascular dementia, Lewy body dementia, dementia associated with other neurodegenerative conditions such as Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease, frontotemporal dementia, and mixed dementia types (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease with Lewy body pathology and Alzheimer’s disease with vascular pathology; Livingston et al., 2017; Mahendra & Hopper, 2013; Plassman et al., 2007). See the National Institutes of Health’s resource on understanding different types of dementia for further information.

Other conditions that may result in dementia due to progressive changes in brain function include

• Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome secondary to chronic alcohol abuse,
• traumatic brain injury,
• chronic traumatic encephalopathy due to repeated trauma (e.g., dementia pugilistica),
• multiple sclerosis,
• human immunodeficiency virus, and
• normal pressure hydrocephalus.

Risk Factors

Modifiable risk factors for dementia are those that, if managed, can potentially prevent or delay the onset of some cases of dementia. Neuroprotective behavior, either prior to the onset of dementia or during the onset of dementia, may delay or decrease the severity of dementia symptoms (De la Rosa et al., 2020; Fratiglioni et al., 2020).

Livingston et al. (2020) discuss some modifiable risk factors for dementia, including the following:

• Aim to maintain a systolic blood pressure of no more than 130 mmHg from age 40 onward, with the use of antihypertensives as needed.
• Use hearing aids when needed.
• Prevent hearing loss by limiting excessive exposure to noise.
• Reduce exposure to secondhand smoke and air pollution.
• Prevent head injury.
• Limit alcohol use.
• Avoid, or stop, smoking.
• Provide children with appropriate education in primary and secondary schools.
• Sustain midlife, and possibly later life, physical activity.
• Encourage lifestyle interventions to improve sleep and general health.

Audiologists and SLPs can play a primary role in mitigating these risk factors through hearing loss prevention and remediation as well as interventions to stimulate cognition and enhance communication and social participation (Lanzi et al., 2021). It is important for clinicians to provide education and counseling to help support older adults in mitigating their risk of further decline.

Cognitive reserve refers to the individual differences in the way individuals process tasks due to differences in brain anatomy and/or life experiences. Cognitive reserve accounts for the observation that there is not always a direct relationship between the degree of brain damage or pathology and the resulting deficit, and individuals with higher cognitive reserves may be able to withstand more advanced disease progression before outwardly demonstrating significant cognitive impairment (Stern, 2009). Factors that may contribute to cognitive reserve, and thus have a neuroprotective effect, include engaging in complex occupations, participating in cognitively stimulating leisure activities, and obtaining higher levels of education (Opdebeeck et al., 2016; Stern, 2009). Additionally, lifelong multilingualism may contribute to cognitive reserve and, therefore, be considered neuroprotective behavior (Guzmán-Vélez & Tranel, 2015).

Nonmodifiable risk factors are those that cannot be changed or modified by the individual. They include age and heredity.

Age is the greatest nonmodifiable risk factor for dementia. Every 5 years after age 65, the number of individuals with Alzheimer’s disease doubles; about one third of people over age 85 have the disease (National Institute on Aging, 2017).

Heredity can play a part in dementia risk, and the risk of acquiring dementia is higher if an individual has a first-order relative with the disease (Green et al., 2002; Lovestone, 1999; Wolters et al., 2017). This risk may be linked to inheritance of the apolipoprotein E (ApoE) gene (e.g., Green et al., 2002; Lovestone, 1999) or to unexplained hereditary causes (Wolters et al., 2017). Because of the known heredity nature of dementia, it is important to obtain a family history during chart review and interview with patients.

Social Determinants of Health

The World Health Organization (WHO) describes social determinants of health as the nonmedical factors and forces of someone’s daily life that impact their health outcomes. SLPs should consider social determinants of health when determining what risk factors are modifiable and nonmodifiable. For example, education level may not be realistically modified, because it is heavily influenced by a person’s environment and socioeconomic status.

For further information, see ASHA’s resource on social determinants of health and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s resource on social determinants of health and Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias.

Hearing Loss and Dementia

On a global scale, hearing loss accounts for the largest proportion of potentially modifiable risk factors for dementia. After adjusting for other risk factors (e.g., education, diabetes, cardiovascular factors), hearing loss is related to, but has not been determined to cause, an increased risk of dementia (Deal et al., 2017; Lin et al., 2011). The signs and symptoms of both dementia and hearing loss are closely related, and audiologists and SLPs should be aware that these two conditions may occur simultaneously or independently. For individuals with suspected cognitive decline without a confirmed history of hearing loss, hearing screening and subsequent referrals to audiologists for full hearing evaluations should be considered. For individuals with a confirmed history of hearing loss, regular reevaluation can help ensure that appropriate treatment plans can be implemented to maximize hearing access. A referral to the patient’s primary medical professional for evaluation and management is appropriate if an audiologist or an SLP suspects dementia.

Individuals with baseline hearing loss were found to have greater rates of cognitive decline over time than individuals with normal hearing (Lin et al., 2013). This cognitive degradation can be linked to a greater workload for the brain to process speech when the signal is diluted or distorted due to a hearing impairment. Ray et al. (2019) suggest that “the excessive cognitive load leads to changes in brain structure and further neurodegeneration.” Lin and Albert (2014) noted that older adults with hearing loss showed “reduced volume in the auditory cortex” and “accelerated brain atrophy in whole brain and regional volumes concentrated in the right temporal lobe.”

Several hypotheses have been proposed to account for the association between hearing loss and dementia. They include the following:

• Common cause hypothesis—suggests that hearing loss and dementia share the same etiology (neural degeneration associated with aging) but that one does not cause the other (Baltes & Lindenberger, 1997; Lindenberger & Baltes, 1994).
• Cascade hypotheses
  • Sensory deprivation (secondary to hearing loss) leads directly to impoverished cortical sensory input and indirectly to social isolation and depression, both of which, in turn, lead to cognitive decline (see, e.g., Baltes & Lindenberger, 1997; Lindenberger & Baltes, 1994; Stahl, 2017; Tun et al., 2009).
  • Cortical changes identified via MRI, which may indicate changes in cognitive reserve (Lin & Albert, 2014).
• Cognitive load hypothesis—suggests that when hearing loss is present, greater cognitive resources are dedicated to auditory processing, leaving fewer resources for other cognitive processes, such as working memory, that are involved in the processing and comprehension of speech (see, e.g., Baltes & Lindenberger, 1997; Lindenberger & Baltes, 1994; Martini et al., 2015; Peelle et al., 2011).

It is possible that the mechanism proposed by each of these hypotheses is not mutually exclusive and that each contributes individually or in combination to increase the risk of dementia. Further investigation is needed to clarify the relationship between hearing loss and dementia (Loughrey et al., 2018; Thomson et al., 2017).

Roles and Responsibilities of Speech-Language Pathologists

SLPs play a central role in the screening, assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of persons with dementia. The professional roles and activities in speech-language pathology include clinical/educational services (diagnosis, assessment, planning, and treatment); prevention and advocacy; and education, administration, and research. See ASHA’s Scope of Practice in Speech-Language Pathology (ASHA, 2016).

Appropriate roles for SLPs include the following:

• Providing prevention information to individuals and groups known to be at risk for dementia as well as to individuals working with those at risk.
• Educating other professionals, payers, and legislators on the needs of persons with dementia and the role of SLPs in diagnosing and managing cognitive-communication disorders and dysphagia associated with dementia.
• Screening individuals with cognitive-communication difficulties and determining the need for further assessment.
• Conducting a culturally and linguistically relevant comprehensive assessment of cognitive-communication and swallowing abilities.
• Assessing, diagnosing, and treating cognitive-communication disorders associated with dementia.
• Assessing, diagnosing, and treating dysphagia associated with dementia.
• Counseling persons with dementia and their families regarding communication and swallowing-related issues as well as providing information about the nature of dementia and its course.
• Screening for hearing loss prior to cognitive assessment and referring to an audiologist when appropriate.
• Referring to other professionals to rule out other conditions, determine etiology, and facilitate access to comprehensive services.
• Developing treatment plans; providing treatment to maintain cognitive-communication, language, and swallowing abilities at the highest possible level throughout the course of the underlying disease; and documenting treatment outcomes.
• Serving as an integral member of an interprofessional team working with individuals with dementia and their families/care partners. See ASHA’s resources on interprofessional education/interprofessional practice (IPE/IPP) and person- and family-centered care.
• Monitoring cognitive-communicative and swallowing status to ensure appropriate intervention and support throughout the course of the underlying disease.
• Providing education about dementia and training regarding environmental modification to the individual’s care partners.
• Consulting and collaborating with professionals, family members, care partners, and others to facilitate program development throughout the course of the underlying disease and to ensure continuum of care.
• Remaining informed of research in the areas of cognitive communication and dysphagia associated with dementia and helping to advance the knowledge base related to the nature and treatment of these conditions.
• Advocating for individuals with dementia and their families at the local, state, and national levels and providing expert testimony when appropriate.

As indicated in the ASHA Code of Ethics (ASHA, 2023), SLPs who serve this population should be specifically educated and appropriately trained to do so. Given the impact of cognitive decline on communication and swallowing, practitioners who serve individuals with dementia require knowledge and skills in all these areas, including specific knowledge of cognitive-communication disorders and dysphagia associated with dementia.

Most of the common dementia-associated diseases are progressive, and SLPs have an ethical responsibility to provide appropriate services that will benefit the individual and maximize cognitive-communication functioning at all stages of the disease process.

Roles and Responsibilities of Audiologists

Audiologists play a critical role in the assessment and care of individuals with dementia. The professional roles and activities in audiology include clinical services related to hearing loss (assessment, diagnosis, planning, and treatment); prevention and advocacy; and education, administration, and research. See ASHA’s Scope of Practice in Audiology (ASHA, 2018).

Appropriate roles for audiologists include the following:

• Providing information to individuals and groups at risk for hearing loss and educating them on the link between hearing loss and dementia.
• Educating other professionals, third-party payers, and legislators on the needs of persons with dementia and hearing loss.
• Screening individuals with possible hearing loss and determining the need for further assessment.
• Conducting a comprehensive audiologic assessment and diagnosing hearing loss when present.
• Screening for cognitive impairment (e.g., memory function) and determining the need for further assessment by an SLP and other professionals as appropriate.
• Counseling persons with dementia and their families regarding the impact of hearing loss on communication.
• Providing audiologic treatment to individuals with dementia that optimizes communication and social engagement throughout the course of the disease.
• Serving as an integral member of an interdisciplinary team to ensure comprehensive services and continuum of care for individuals with dementia and their families/care partners. See ASHA’s resources on interprofessional education/interprofessional practice (IPE/IPP) and person- and family-centered care.
• Providing intervention strategies to the individual’s care partners and recommending environmental modifications and other techniques to facilitate communication.
• Remaining informed of research in the area of hearing loss and dementia and helping to advance the knowledge base related to the nature and treatment of these conditions.
• Advocating for individuals with dementia and their families at the local, state, and national levels and providing expert testimony when appropriate.

As indicated in the ASHA Code of Ethics (ASHA, 2023), audiologists who serve this population should be specifically educated and appropriately trained to do so. Given the relationship between hearing and dementia, audiologists who serve individuals with dementia require knowledge and skills in both areas as well as knowledge of cognitive-communication problems associated with dementia.

Most of the common dementia-associated diseases are progressive, and audiologists have an ethical responsibility to provide appropriate services that will benefit the individual and maximize communication function at all stages of the disease process.

SLPs assess cognitive-communication deficits and dysphagia related to dementia while also considering cultural, linguistic, and environmental influences. Audiologists perform audiometric assessment, if deemed necessary following potential SLP-performed hearing screening, to rule out or identify hearing loss as a contributing factor to demonstrated cognitive degradation.

Assessment is sensitive to cultural and linguistic diversity and should occur in the language(s) used by the person with dementia. See ASHA’s Practice Portal pages on Cultural Responsiveness and Multilingual Service Delivery in Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology.

SLPs often conduct assessments in collaboration with clinical neuropsychologists. See ASHA’s resources on collaboration and teaming as well as evaluating and treating communication and cognitive disorders: approaches to referral and collaboration for speech-language pathology and clinical neuropsychology.

Screening

Screening for cognitive-communication and swallowing impairments may be conducted for individuals with any condition that increases the risk of mild cognitive impairment or dementia. The screening may be conducted by an SLP or other trained member of the interprofessional care team working with the individual. See Scope of Practice in Audiology (ASHA, 2018) and Scope of Practice in Speech-Language Pathology (ASHA, 2016).

Standardized instruments with demonstrated reliability regarding screening for dementia are available; however, it is important to note that a screening involves more than the use of a single tool (Lanzi et al., 2021). These instruments typically include brief assessments of orientation to time, place, and person. Other tests (e.g., story recall/story retelling) assess episodic memory and can be useful for screening early dementia (Bayles & Tomoeda, 1993; Rabin et al., 2009; Takayama, 2010; Wechsler, 2009).

Screening protocols may also briefly assess other cognitive domains at a surface level. In addition, patient- or care partner–reported outcome measures may be valuable tools to capture the individual’s or family’s perspective on cognition and functional status, which might not be captured by other screening tools (Cohen & Hula, 2020). If screening reveals cognitive impairment, the individual may be referred to an SLP for a comprehensive evaluation.

Prior to screening for cognitive-communication disorders and dysphagia, it is important to consider the impact of sensory impairment (hearing and vision), depression, current medications, and other factors (e.g., level of fatigue) on cognitive function. The Scope of Practice in Speech-Language Pathology (ASHA, 2016) includes hearing screening in the SLP’s scope of practice.

Hearing Loss

Hearing loss is a common result of aging, and many older adults have both hearing loss and cognitive impairment. Together, these losses can affect communication, social participation, and quality of life (Pichora-Fuller et al., 2013). Therefore, it is important for clinicians to differentiate between hearing loss and cognitive impairment and to identify when one or both conditions are present.

Hearing screening of individuals with possible cognitive decline is essential to flag individuals with potential hearing loss and refer to audiologists for full hearing evaluations. SLPs play a valuable role in the design and implementation of effective screening programs and make appropriate referrals when necessary. See Scope of Practice in Speech-Language Pathology (ASHA, 2016) and ASHA’s Practice Portal page on Adult Hearing Screening. If participation in a valid hearing screening is not possible prior to cognitive screening due to lack of access or lack of ability to reliably participate, behaviors consistent with hearing loss and the potential impacts of unknown hearing status on testing results should be documented.

When completing cognitive screening for individuals with hearing loss, the clinician should ensure the individual is wearing any prescribed devices (e.g., hearing aids, cochlear implants, or osseointegrated hearing devices). Assistive listening technology should be used during screenings and assessments if the individual does not utilize prescribed hearing devices. See ASHA’s Practice Portal pages on Hearing Loss in Adults and Hearing Aids for Adults.

Other Factors

Visual Impairment

If visual deficits are suspected, the individual is referred for vision testing prior to completing cognitive-communication screening if possible. Prescription eyeglasses, as needed, are to be worn during screening. If prescription eyeglasses are not available, consider large print or using magnifying glasses. Adequate lighting is to be used in the test (and treatment) environment.

Depression

Depression is common in individuals with dementia and can adversely affect test performance. Cognitive changes associated with depression resemble the cognitive changes associated with dementia so closely that depressive symptoms are often referred to as “pseudodementia.” If signs and symptoms of depression are present, the individual is referred to a neuropsychologist or clinical psychologist experienced with geriatric depression.

Medications

Prior to screening, the SLP considers the effects of prescription drugs on cognitive-communicative function. Polypharmacy—the concurrent use of several medications—is common among older adults who have multiple medical conditions, and some medications may exacerbate cognitive problems. Questions about the effects of medication use on cognitive-communication functioning can be answered by a pharmacist knowledgeable in geriatric pharmacology.

Comprehensive Assessment

Comprehensive assessment includes an assessment of cognition, language, and communication. It may also include an assessment of swallowing and a complete audiologic assessment, as needed.

Consistent with the World Health Organization’s International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health framework (ASHA, 2023; World Health Organization, 2001), comprehensive assessment is conducted to identify and describe

• impairments in body structure and function, including factors that affect communication performance (e.g., cognition, language, social/behavioral skills) or swallowing function;
• comorbid deficits or health conditions,such as hearing loss or depression;
• limitations in activity and participation, including limitations in functional communication and interpersonal interactions;
• contextual (environmental and personal) factorsthat serve as barriers to or facilitators of successful communication and participation in ideal settings, everyday contexts, and employment settings; and
• the impact of impairments on quality of life for the individual and their family and community.

See ASHA’s Person-Centered Focus on Function: Dementia [PDF] for an example of assessment data consistent with the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health framework.

Assessments can be static (i.e., using procedures designed to describe current levels of functioning within relevant domains) and/or dynamic (i.e., an ongoing process using hypothesis-testing procedures to identify potentially successful intervention and support procedures).

When dementia is caused by a progressive disease, periodic (e.g., quarterly or annually) reevaluations are essential to adjust care plans to meet the changing needs of the individual.

SLP Assessment

The SLP determines the most appropriate assessment protocol based on the purpose of the assessment and the individual’s communication and swallowing needs and wishes. The information gathered during the assessment guides the development of person-centered intervention focused on maximizing the individual’s ability to participate in meaningful activities (e.g., Bourgeois, 2015; Chapey et al., 2000; Hickey & Bourgeois, 2018; Hickey, Cleary, Coulter, & Bourgeois, 2018; Hickey, Khayum, & Bourgeois, 2018; Lanzi et al., 2017). See ASHA’s resource on person- and family-centered care.

The protocol may include standardized and nonstandardized assessment tools and a variety of other data sources, including clinical observations in the home or long-term care setting or patient- or care partner–reported outcome measurements. These other data sources provide personally relevant information about the individual’s cognitive-communication strengths and needs in everyday situations, as well as their feeding and swallowing status. Conversations with the individual and their care partners can help identify the individual’s personal goals for continued, meaningful life participation. See ASHA’s resource on the general types of assessment tools, techniques, and data sources that can be used in SLP assessment.

A number of assessment tools have been standardized on individuals with dementia. They can be used to evaluate language comprehension and expression as well as the integrity of working, declarative, and procedural memory systems. Clinicians consider the severity and stage of dementia when selecting tests.

When selecting standardized assessments, the clinician considers the cultural and linguistic background of the client and, when available, uses tests that have normative samples of culturally and ethnically diverse groups. Standard scores should not be reported if the normative sample is not representative of the individual being assessed.

Audiologic Assessment

Traditional behavioral tests of hearing (e.g., pure-tone and speech audiometry) are generally successful in the early stages of dementia, although modifications may be needed. These include simplifying directions, using pulse tones, slowing the presentation of speech stimuli, providing reminders to respond, and allowing a “yes” response instead of raising a finger or pressing a button.

Objective tests, such as otoacoustic emissions (OAEs) or auditory brainstem responses (ABRs) may be used to assess hearing if subjective measures cannot be obtained due to the progression of dementia or other factors (Dawes et al., 2022).

Typical Components of the Comprehensive Assessment

Case History

• medical status, medical history, and family medical history
• psychological history (e.g., depression)
• review of auditory, visual, motor, cognitive, and emotional status
• demographic information (e.g., education level, marital status, occupation)
• current living arrangements and available supports
• language(s) spoken, including the environment in which they are spoken

Interview With Individual

• report of cognitive changes (e.g., memory loss, forgetfulness, disorientation, getting lost)
• impact of changes on functional communication and life participation
• contexts of concern (e.g., social interactions, work activities)
• goals for continued life participation
• patient-reported outcome measures

Interview With Family/Care Partners

• observations of cognitive changes
• impact of changes on the individual’s functional communication and ability to participate in everyday activities
• impact of changes on the individual’s safety and safety awareness
• contexts of concern (e.g., social interactions, family discussions and decision making)
• care partner–reported outcome measures

Cognitive Communication

• Observation of the individual’s communication and level of participation during everyday activities (e.g., mealtime; conversations with friends, family, and care partners).
• Assessment of ability to process various types of information (e.g., attend to, perceive, organize, and remember verbal and nonverbal information) under ideal conditions and in the context of various activities and settings.
• Assessment of executive or self-regulatory control (e.g., ability to set goals, plan, initiate and inhibit, self-monitor and self-evaluate, solve problems, and think and act strategically).
• Analysis of the cognitive and communication demands of relevant social, academic, and/or vocational tasks and identification of possible task modifications to facilitate performance.
• Identification of the individual’s potential for using effective compensatory strategies and identification of motivational barriers and facilitators to using these strategies.
• Evaluation of current communication and support competencies of relevant people in the individual’s life.
• Analysis of discourse samples (i.e., personal narratives, picture description tasks) considering such factors as communication efficiency, message content, and word finding (Lanzi et al., 2023; Mueller et al., 2018).

Assessment of Swallowing

Please see the Assessment section of ASHA’s Practice Portal page on Adult Dysphagia for general information about dysphagia assessment. Dysphagia assessment specific to individuals with dementia includes the evaluation of

• the patient’s ability to recognize food and utensils;
• the impact of the appearance of food, lighting, and distractions on swallowing function;
• the potential impact of medications on swallowing function, including polypharmacy;
• ability to take medication orally and if changes to the medication intake method are recommended (e.g., liquid medication, IV medication, medication crushed in puree);
• the influence of cognitive factors on feeding and swallowing, including consideration of sundowning—increased confusion beginning in the late afternoon and lasting into the night;
• dentition and oral care status;
• fatigue level during meals; and
• the patient’s ability to follow directions during per os (PO) trials.

When considering instrumental assessment for individuals with dementia, SLPs should also consider

• the patient’s ability to orient to a new situation and new individuals (e.g., videofluoroscopic swallowing study suite);
• the patient’s anticipated tolerance of instrumentation (e.g., tolerance of FEEs); and
• the impact of fatigue on the patient’s swallow function.

Please see ASHA’s Practice Portal pages on Flexible Endoscopic Evaluation of Swallowing (FEES) and Videofluoroscopic Swallow Study (VFSS) for more information.

Audiologic Assessment

• otoscopic examination
• acoustic immittance testing
• otoacoustic emissions (OAEs)
• pure-tone audiometry (air and bone conduction)
• speech recognition thresholds
• word recognition
• speech-in-noise testing (if applicable)
• auditory brainstem response (if objective measure is warranted)

See ASHA’s Practice Portal page on Hearing Loss in Adults for information about the full audiologic assessment conducted by an audiologist.

Assessment Results

The comprehensive assessment may result in

• the diagnosis of a cognitive-communication and/or swallowing disorder,
• the diagnosis of hearing loss,
• a clinical description of the characteristics of the disorder(s),
• the identification of the individual’s communication and eating needs and their goals for life participation,
• the identification of facilitators of and barriers to life participation,
• recommendations for intervention and support, and
• a referral for other assessments or services.

Assessment in Long-Term Care Communities

The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (1987) mandates the evaluation of the physical and psychological status of residents in long-term care communities at the time of admission and periodically thereafter. The required evaluation, known as the Minimum Data Set (MDS), includes questions about the ability of residents to hear, comprehend, and produce language; cognitive pattern/skills; and delirium. Although the law does not require that judgments about hearing and cognitive-communicative function be made by SLPs, the inclusion of these questions on the MDS helped establish a role for SLPs with individuals living in long-term care communities.

Dementia is a progressive disease, and goals change over the course of treatment as communication needs and abilities change. SLPs have an ethical responsibility to provide services that maximize cognitive-communication functioning and safe and/or pleasurable eating at all stages of the disease process.

Dementia treatment may include compensatory or restorative treatment approaches that can target either improvement or maintenance of function. Given the progressive nature of the disease, treatment for dementia is often delivered as maintenance therapy, where services are designed to maintain a level of function or prevent further functional decline associated with the goals in the patient’s plan of care. Maintenance therapy may also be delivered by altering dosage of services into shorter episodes of care with periodic reassessment of needs as the disease progresses. Services that do not require the skills of the clinician and can be performed by a caregiver would not qualify as maintenance therapy. Payer coverage policies for maintenance services may vary.

Decisions about goals and treatment options are made in collaboration with the individual, family and care partners, and other health professionals. See ASHA’s resources on interprofessional education/interprofessional practice (IPE/IPP) and person- and family-centered care for further information. SLPs share information about dementia throughout the course of treatment with the individual and their family/care partners and provide family counseling and care partner training.

Person-centered intervention focuses on maximizing the individual’s ability to participate in meaningful activities (e.g., Bourgeois, 2015; Chapey et al., 2000; Hickey, Khayum, & Bourgeois, 2018). SLPs consider the individual’s cultural and linguistic background, social history, present social context, communication needs, and personal desires when developing a treatment plan and formulating functional, personally relevant goals. It is imperative that SLPs ask the individual about their wishes for continued care over time, including feeding and swallowing directives. See ASHA’s resource on person- and family-centered care for further information.

Consistent with the World Health Organization’s (2001) International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health framework, person-centered intervention is designed to

• capitalize on strengths and address weaknesses related to underlying structures and functions that affect communication;
• facilitate the individual’s activities and participation by helping the person acquire new skills and strategies; and
• modify contextual factors that serve as barriers to and enhance facilitators of successful communication and participation, including development and use of appropriate accommodations in the environment.

Person-centered cognitive-communication goals can focus on

• linguistic processing in the context of various activities and settings;
• executive or self-regulatory skills, such as goal setting, self-monitoring, and problem solving;
• the use of effective compensatory techniques and strategies for communicating;
• the use of alternative and/or augmentative methods to support communication; and
• initiating or maintaining routines or roles in the individual’s living community.

See ASHA’s Person-Centered Focus on Function: Dementia [PDF] for an example of goals consistent with the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health framework.

Audiology services (e.g., hearing aids, hearing assistive technology) may be indicated for individuals with hearing loss.

Cultural and Linguistic Considerations

The clinician approaches clinical interactions with cultural humility and demonstrates sensitivity to social and cultural influences when sharing potential treatment recommendations and outcomes. Cultural views and preferences may not be consistent with medical approaches typically used in the U.S. health care system; however, they must be recognized and respected. See ASHA’s Practice Portal page on Cultural Responsiveness.

Services should be provided in the language(s) used by the person with dementia, either by a multilingual audiologist/SLP or through the use of trained interpreters, when necessary. See ASHA’s Practice Portal page on Multilingual Service Delivery in Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology.

Perspectives on Aging and Disability

Views of the natural aging process and acceptance of disability vary by culture and may affect treatment decisions (Hinton et al., 1999; Low et al., 2009; Parker et al., 2010; Whitlatch & Feinberg, 2003; Williams & Harvey, 2013; Winslow & Flaskerud, 2009). For example, families may not seek help, or they may delay seeking help until symptoms are beyond early or mild stages (Hart et al., 1996; Pachana & Gallagher-Thompson, 2018; Regan, 2014). Families may fear the stigma of dementia, which can also affect decisions about seeking help (Benbow & Jolley, 2012).

See ASHA’s Practice Portal resource on Palliative and End-of-Life Care. 

Feeding and Swallowing

The clinician considers how feeding-related religious rituals and requirements can be observed and accommodated. Patients with dementia may have difficulty communicating and advocating for these needs, so the clinician can consult with religious leaders and care partners to determine ways to continue religious observances in a familiar and meaningful way while maintaining feeding and swallowing safety.

LGBTQIA+ Communities

Dementia can have a significant impact on individuals in the LGBTQIA+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning, intersex, asexual, and more) community. For example, transgender individuals with dementia may experience periods of confusion about medical issues related to their sex assigned at birth. Dementia may also make it challenging for LGBTQIA+ individuals to manage disclosure—they may lose some ability to determine with whom they share information related to their gender (Barrett et al., 2015), which can lead to confusion over how they discuss, share, and/or present their gender, and who is perceived as a safe person.

LGBTQIA+ individuals with dementia often experience a loss of identity, as a lack of cultural competence can lead to discrimination on the basis of age, sexuality, and the stigma associated with dementia (McGovern, 2014). Due to historical experiences of discrimination and lack of access to safe care, there may be mistrust of and discomfort with health care professionals. Care facilities should be sensitive to the needs of older LGBTQIA+ patients and provide them with accommodations consistent with their identity (Voyzey, 2015).

See ASHA’s resource on supporting and working with transgender and gender-diverse people.

Care Partner Training

Family members and those who care for individuals with dementia are faced with challenges that can affect their own health and well-being (Gilhooly et al., 2016; Raggi et al., 2015; Snyder et al., 2015). Changes in communication functioning due to cognitive decline and/or behavioral changes can have a significant impact on day-to-day interactions and can cause frustration. Audiologists and SLPs work with families and care partners to help them understand and manage these changes, minimize stress and frustration, and provide a supportive environment for the individual with dementia.

Training families and care partners to use effective strategies that enhance communication may help them understand and repair communication breakdowns, engage in conversation more successfully, and improve quality of life for the individual with dementia (Zientz et al., 2007). Care partners benefit from being taught how to communicate using multimodal support and verbal and nonverbal strategies to reduce responsive behaviors. It is also important to teach care partners how to modify external strategies, communication supports, and the environment to support functional performance.

Cognitive-Communication Treatment Options

The goal of cognitive-communication treatment is to maximize the individual’s quality of life and communication success. This list is not exhaustive, and the inclusion of any specific treatment approach does not imply endorsement by ASHA.

Reality Orientation

Reality orientation is a therapeutic technique used to assist individuals in increasing their engagement with their surroundings through repeated reorientation to person, place, time, and situation. Compensatory treatment is typically used alongside verbal reinforcement and encouragement to engage with provided external aids. This can include, but is not limited to, the following:

• Encouraging orientation to date by giving patients access to updated calendars and print, radio, or televised news.
• Encouraging orientation to time of day by increasing visual access to windows, clocks, and other technology that displays the time with a designated a.m. versus p.m. marker.
• Encouraging orientation to self and/or situation by providing access to information on the patient’s personal history, the staff they are working alongside, and details regarding their need for services.
• Encouraging orientation to familiar persons by placing pictures of the patient and their family and/or care partners in the patient’s environment.
• Encouraging orientation to place by displaying the current address and developing systems (e.g., labels, signs, colored markings) to help the patient locate their room or personal items.

As with most compensatory strategies, modifications may be needed to meet the individual needs of each patient throughout the disease continuum.

Assistive Technology

Assistive technology (AT) includes assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices and services for individuals with disabilities. An AT device is any item, piece of equipment, or system—whether commercial, modified, or customized—that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of a person with disabilities.

Several commercially available AT devices (e.g., memory aids and navigational tools) may have applications to dementia care (Bharucha et al., 2009). AT devices may be used to increase safety and independence, support activities of daily living, or decrease the likelihood of social isolation, among other potential uses (Pappadà et al., 2021). The selection of specific AT devices and systems depends on the stage of dementia, as individuals in the early stages of the disease are more likely to be able to use a wider range of devices and systems than individuals in the later stages (e.g., Collins, 2018). AT device selection is also highly dependent on the specific needs of the person with dementia and their care partner, with consideration of device costs and knowledge about and acceptance of these devices (Sriram et al., 2019).

Hearing Assistive Technology Systems (HATS) can be used to enhance face-to-face communication. HATS are available for individuals with hearing loss who currently use hearing aids or have cochlear implants and for individuals with untreated hearing loss. HATS include, but are not limited to, FM systems, external remote microphones, induction loops, and personal amplification devices. HATS may be appropriate for individuals with dementia who have hearing loss.

Cognitive Stimulation Therapy

Cognitive stimulation therapy (CST) is a group treatment for individuals with mild-to-moderate dementia. CST uses theme-based, mentally stimulating, relevant activities aimed at improving cognitive function. Individuals are actively engaged in optimal learning environments—typically, in a small-group setting (e.g., Aguirre et al., 2013; Woods et al., 2012). CST may also be used as a form of maintenance therapy (Lobbia et al., 2019; Orrell et al., 2014).

Environmental Modifications

Environmental modifications are changes or adaptations to the environment to improve daily functions in individuals with dementia. They are designed to support communication needs and abilities by reducing barriers and minimizing the impact of impaired body function.

Modifications are aimed at enhancing the following aspects of the environment:

• Cognitive modifications include
  • personalized living spaces to aid memory and orientation;
  • labels or signs that incorporate text and simple graphics;
  • step-by-step sequencing cards to guide activities;
  • cues to support “way-finding” and orientation; and
  • verbal instructions.
• Visual modifications include
  • reducing glare;
  • improving lighting;
  • reducing visual clutter;
  • arranging items (e.g., furniture and personal items) in an organized way;
  • providing a clear line of sight to items and locations (e.g., bathroom); and
  • adding signs and photos to support preferences.
• Auditory modifications include
  • minimizing background noise (e.g., TV, radio) when possible;
  • improving audibility by reducing noise reverberation (e.g., by using rugs and drapery); and
  • using amplification devices when needed (Brush et al., 2011).

Assessing the individual’s performance in relevant settings (e.g., home, social setting, clinical setting) helps identify relevant environmental barriers and facilitators as well as potential modifications (Brush et al., 2011, 2012).

External Aids

External aids are aimed at helping individuals with memory problems in their day-to-day activities. They help compensate for memory deficits, maximize independence, improve conversation, reduce anxiety, and decrease responsive behaviors such as repetitive questioning (Bourgeois, 1994; Hickey & Bourgeois, 2018).

External aids include changes to an individual’s communication environment (see the Environmental Modifications section of this Practice Portal page) and checklists, daily planners, calendars, programmable watches, pill reminders, and recorded messages (e.g., voicemails). Smartphones may be used to provide reminders of daily tasks, medication administration, and appointments.

These aids are more effective when they are specifically taught to an individual (Lanzi & Bourgeois, 2020). Personalization of the aids (e.g., preference, usability, modifications) promotes better generalization to everyday use (Lanzi et al., 2022; Sohlberg & Turkstra, 2011).

External aids such as memory books, memory wallets, scripts, and communication cards can also be used to help an individual retrieve personal information for stimulating and maintaining conversation (e.g., Bourgeois, 1990, 1992a, 1992b, 2013; Hickey & Bourgeois, 2018).

The type and complexity of external aids or need for care partner support may need to be modified as a person progresses throughout the disease. For example, an individual with mild dementia may initially be able to use a smartphone to set reminders for medication administration but then may progress to using a shared digital calendar of reminders managed by their care partner before transitioning to more hands-on medication management assistance. It is important to design and start using aids as early as possible.

Reminiscence therapy uses external memory aids in the form of tangible prompts (e.g., photographs, familiar items, and music from the past) to stimulate conversations about past events, activities, and experiences. Reminiscence therapy is a client-centered approach that enables clinicians to create customized treatment plans that consider the personal and cultural aspects of each individual.

Montessori for Aging and Dementia

Montessori for Aging and Dementia is a person-centered approach based on the work of Dr. Maria Montessori. This approach focuses on the abilities, needs, interests, and strengths of people with dementia in a supportive environment. It empowers individuals to engage in meaningful activities throughout the course of their lives (see, e.g., Bourgeois et al., 2015; Brush & Norris, 2017; Douglas, 2021; Douglas et al., 2018; Elliot, 2015).

Characteristics of a typical Montessori classroom (e.g., freedom, structure and order, reality and nature, beauty and atmosphere, and specialized materials) are integrated into the eldercare setting. The environment is structured to support the individual by placing needed memory, visual, auditory, tactile, and olfactory cues in the environment. For example, high-contrast signs can be used to compensate for memory deficits and to encourage engagement with the environment. For example, a sign saying, “Please water the flowers” might be placed next to potted plants and a watering can.

The Montessori approach encourages individuals with dementia to continue to care for themselves as independently as possible and provides opportunities and supports to care for others (e.g., reading to another individual with vision impairment).

Simulated Presence Therapy

Simulated presence therapy is an emotion-oriented approach aimed at reducing levels of anxiety and challenging behaviors by playing audio voice recordings of the individual’s close relatives. Simulated presence therapy has been used to improve well-being (e.g., decrease agitation and withdrawal behaviors) in individuals with Alzheimer’s disease who have adequate hearing and have retained communication skills (Bayles et al., 2006).

Spaced Retrieval

Spaced retrieval is a technique for learning and storing information so that it can be easily accessed. Spaced retrieval teaches new memory associations using the principles of classical conditioning and taking advantage of preserved implicit (unconscious or automatic) memory. For example, a lead question prompts a previously relevant response—a new, functional association between the question and the response is established using systematic spaced practice (i.e., practice over increasingly longer intervals of time) and the principles of errorless learning (Benigas et al., 2016; Brush & Camp, 1998). Errorless learning is a strategy that eliminates errors as much as possible by providing prompts and cues immediately following instruction.

Validation Therapy

Validation therapy is an approach that involves validating or accepting the values, beliefs, and reality of the person with dementia to help reduce stress, provide opportunities for the individual to communicate feelings, promote contentment, and lessen negative behaviors. Clinicians use validation therapy to communicate with individuals by acknowledging the feelings that underlie their behavioral and language deficits (Feil, 1982; Hitch, 1994; Mitchell, 1987; Neal & Wright, 2003).

Eating, Feeding, and Swallowing Interventions

Individuals progressing through the stages of dementia may experience increasing difficulties surrounding mealtime, including behavioral challenges (e.g., forgetting to eat, wandering), eating problems (e.g., difficulty using utensils or self-feeding), and swallowing disorders (e.g., dysphagia; Cipriani et al., 2016). For example, individuals with moderately severe cognitive decline may have difficulty manipulating a knife, individuals with severe cognitive decline may have difficulty discriminating between utensils, and individuals with very severe cognitive decline may be easily overwhelmed and require cues to locate food on the plate and to swallow (Voyzey, 2010).

These problems can impact the health of an individual. Decisions regarding treatment should consider the potential health risks associated with eating and swallowing problems, along with the individual’s dignity and quality of life throughout the course of the disease (Hickey, Khayum, & Bourgeois, 2018).

Depending on the needs of the individual, goals may focus on one or more of the following:

• improving the ability to eat and swallow safely
• increasing intake to improve nutrition and hydration
• encouraging engagement and participation in the mealtime experience (Hickey, Cleary, et al., 2018)

Goal selection is person centered. It considers the wishes of the individual with dementia and their family (e.g., cultural food choices, family rituals at mealtime, and religious beliefs) and involves input from an interdisciplinary team of professionals (e.g., Beckley, 2017). See ASHA’s resources on person- and family-centered care and interprofessional education/interprofessional practice (IPE/IPP).

SLPs are encouraged to alert and collaborate with relevant disciplines if they suspect that feeding and swallowing difficulties have impacted a patient’s nutritional status. Relevant disciplines include, but are not limited to, nutrition, nursing, and the attending physician.

Interventions may include the following:

• Environmental modifications (e.g., increasing lighting, limiting distractions, use of naturalistic settings, adaptive seating for postural adjustments, verbal and/or visual prompts or cues).
• Diet modifications (e.g., altering food texture, temperature, or taste) to facilitate increased intake or improved swallowing ease and safety.
• Compensatory strategies for feeding and swallowing (e.g., alternating bites of food with sips of liquid). Supervision and/or cognitive support may be needed to ensure consistent use of these strategies.
• Additional strategies for maximizing independence and safety (e.g., shopping lists, weekly meal planners, and written cues to sequence mealtime activities or to identify steps for using safe-swallow strategies).

For a comprehensive discussion of eating and swallowing interventions for individuals with dementia, see Hickey, Cleary, et al. (2018). See also ASHA’s Practice Portal page on Adult Dysphagia.

Tube Feeding

Tube feeding for supplemental or alternative intake is sometimes appropriate for individuals with dementia. The decision to implement tube feeding is complicated and should consider the potential complications of tube feeding and the individual’s quality of life. Decisions about tube feeding are made by a physician who should consider input from the team and reflect the wishes of the individual and their family.

Please see the Dementia section of ASHA’s resource on alternative nutrition and hydration in dysphagia care for further information.

Treatment for Hearing Loss

The presence of dementia should not preclude fitting with hearing aids. Ongoing support may be necessary to ensure regular hearing aid use (Lewsen & Cashman, 1997). Responsive behaviors (e.g., repeating questions, making negative statements, forgetting, demonstrating restlessness, pacing, and “hearing things”) may be improved with the use of amplification (Palmer et al., 1999). In addition, elderly patients fitted with hearing aids during the early stages of hearing loss may retain cognitive function better than those who postpone the fitting of hearing aids (Obuchi et al., 2011).

Given the relationship between hearing loss and dementia and the co-occurrence of hearing loss and dementia in aging adults, audiologists play a significant role in the treatment of these individuals. In addition to assessing the need for hearing aids, audiologists may also recommend various inexpensive, low-risk HATS options (e.g., low-cost one-on-one amplification devices, devices to make phones louder, and closed-caption TV) for improving communication.

Audiologists also educate family members and care partners on strategies to improve communication at home (e.g., improving listening environments) and provide ongoing counseling and support in the use of technology.

See also ASHA’s Practice Portal page on Hearing Aids For Adults.

End-of-Life Issues

The pattern of functional decline in individuals at the end of life varies. For individuals with dementia, the decline may be inconsistent over a long period of time. SLPs need to understand the process of dying to understand the emotional and psychological issues facing the individual and their family members.

The goal of intervention with individuals who are nearing the end of life is typically palliative rather than rehabilitative. Palliative care can be provided alongside restorative medical treatment or end-of-life services and focuses on improving the patient’s quality of life by managing pain, discomfort, and emotional distress in chronic conditions. End-of-life care (also called “hospice”) is a type of palliative care that is not provided alongside restorative treatment. The expected outcome of intervention is not to improve abilities but to help the individual maintain dignity and quality of life.

Cognitive decline may make it difficult for the individual to make decisions about their care or to communicate their wishes for end-of-life issues. The ability to make such decisions may decline even early in dementia (Livingston et al., 2017). Individuals should consider planning for end-of-life issues as early as possible because of the degenerative nature of dementia. SLPs can educate individuals and their families/care partners on the expected course of decline in dementia and advocate for early decision making to empower the individual with dementia. If the individual’s communication skills are significantly impaired, SLPs may be able to help the individual communicate their preferences about how they would like to receive care and how they want to spend their time at the end of life.

Early on and throughout the course of dementia, SLPs can discuss and document the individual’s wishes and help develop strategies that allow the individual to express wants and needs more effectively. They can also help the individual communicate last wishes to the family and possibly resolve long-standing issues (e.g., making peace with family members or asking for forgiveness). SLPs can incorporate visual aids into the medical end-of-life decision process to support the person with dementia’s understanding and reasoning (Chang & Bourgeois, 2020). It is also important to educate care partners on recognizing forms of nonverbal communication and providing them with examples of how to communicate nonverbally.

The wishes of the individual and their family are paramount when considering end-of-life issues, and the role of the SLP extends only as far as the patient or family wishes. What is best clinically may not always be best for the individual’s quality of life.

Please see ASHA’s Practice Portal resource page on Palliative and End-of-Life Care for further information.

Service Delivery

See the Service Delivery section of the Dementia Evidence Map for pertinent scientific evidence, expert opinion, and client/care partner perspective.

In addition to determining the optimal, person-centered dementia treatment, audiologists and SLPs consider other service delivery variables—including format, provider, dosage, timing, and setting—that may affect treatment outcomes.

• Format—the structure of the treatment session (e.g., group, individual, in consultation with the family). Group treatment can be used as a format to apply learned strategies and to practice communication in natural conversational contexts.
• Provider—the person providing the treatment (e.g., SLP, trained volunteer, care partner).
• Dosage—the frequency, intensity, and duration of service.
• Timing—the timing of intervention relative to the onset of dementia.
• Setting—the location of treatment (e.g., home, assisted living facility, nursing facility, community-based setting).

Technology can be incorporated into the delivery of services for dementia, including computer-based treatment programs and the use of telepractice as a format for delivering face-to-face services remotely. See ASHA’s Practice Portal page on Telepractice. Treatment extenders such as family members, volunteers, and community members can be trained to encourage the use of communication strategies that were learned in structured treatment sessions. This can encourage the generalization of skills developed in treatment to community and home life.

ASHA Resources

• Alternative Nutrition and Hydration in Dysphagia Care
• ASHA’s Code of Ethics
• ASHA’s Scope of Practice in Speech-Language Pathology
• ASHA’s Scope of Practice in Audiology
• Assessment Tools, Techniques, and Data Sources
• Bilingualism and aging
• Collaboration and Teaming
• Consumer Information: Dementia
• Cultural competence in dysphagia
• Evaluating and Treating Communication and Cognitive Disorders: Approaches to Referral and Collaboration for Speech-Language Pathology and Clinical Neuropsychology
• Flexible Endoscopic Evaluation of Swallowing (FEES)
• Hearing Assistive Technology
• Innovative Treatments for Persons with Dementia [Video]
• Interprofessional Education/Interprofessional Practice (IPE/IPP)
• Palliative and End-of-Life Care
• Patient Information Handouts: Audiology Information Series
• Person- and Family-Centered Care
• Person-Centered Focus on Function: Dementia [PDF]
• Social Determinants of Health
• Supporting and Working With Transgender and Gender-Diverse People
• Videofluoroscopic Swallow Study (VFSS)

Organizations and Related Content

• Academy of Neurologic Communication Disorders and Sciences
• Achieve Study
• Alzheimer’s Association
  • Behaviors: How to Respond When Dementia Causes Unpredictable Behaviors [PDF]
  • Dementia Care Practice Recommendations
• Alzheimer’s Foundation of America
  • Fact Sheets and Information
• American Federation for Aging Research
• Dementia
• Dementia Services Information and Development Centre: E-Learning
• Dementia Research Centre
• Gerontological Society of America
• Hearing Loss Association of America
• LGBT+: Navigating Later Life [PDF]
• MedlinePlus: Dementia
• Montessori for Dementia and Aging: An Approach Worth Learning About
• National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
• National Institute on Aging: Alzheimer’s Disease Education and Referral Center
• Pioneer Network: Changing the Culture of Aging in the 21st Century
• RCSLT: New Long COVID Guidance and Patient Handbook
• Remember Me? A Guide to Alzheimer’s Disease and Hearing Loss
• Senior Guidance
• Social Determinants of Health and Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Dementias
• Understanding Different Types of Dementia
• World Health Organization: Social Determinants of Health

Aguirre, E., Woods, R. T., Spector, A., & Orrell, M. (2013). Cognitive stimulation for dementia: A systematic review of the evidence of effectiveness from randomized controlled trials. Ageing Research Reviews, 12(1), 253–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2012.07.001

Alzheimer’s Association. (2022). Mixed dementia. https://www.alz.org/media/Documents/alzheimers-dementia-mixed_dementia-ts.pdf [PDF]

Alzheimer’s Association. (2023a). 2023 Alzheimer’s disease facts and figures. Alzheimer’s & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer’s Association, 19(4), 1598–1695. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.13016

Alzheimer’s Association. (2023b). 2023 Alzheimer’s disease facts and figures [Special report: The patient journey in an era of new treatments]. https://www.alz.org/media/documents/alzheimers-facts-and-figures.pdf [PDF]

Alzheimer’s Association. (2023c). Frontotemporal dementia (FTD). https://www.alz.org/media/documents/alzheimers-dementia-frontotemporal-dementia-ts.pdf [PDF]

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.).

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2016). Scope of practice in speech-language pathology [Scope of practice]. https://www.asha.org/policy/

American Speech‑Language‑Hearing Association. (2018). Scope of practice in audiology [Scope of practice]. https://www.asha.org/policy/

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2023). Code of ethics [Ethics]. https://www.asha.org/policy/

Arrighi, H. M., Gélinas, I., McLaughlin, T. P., Buchanan, J., & Gauthier, S. (2013). Longitudinal changes in functional disability in Alzheimer’s disease patients. International Psychogeriatrics, 25(6), 929–937. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610212002360

Aarsland, D., Zaccai, J., & Brayne, C. (2005). A systematic review of prevalence studies of dementia in Parkinson's disease. Movement disorders: official journal of the Movement Disorder Society, 20(10), 1255–1263. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.20527

Aselage, M. B., & Amella, E. J. (2010). An evolutionary analysis of mealtime difficulties in older adults with dementia. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 19(1–2), 33–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2702.2009.02969.x

Baltes, P. B., & Lindenberger, U. (1997). Emergence of a powerful connection between sensory and cognitive functions across the adult life span: A new window to the study of cognitive aging? Psychology and Aging, 12(1), 12–21. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.12.1.12

Barrett, C., Crameri, P., Lambourne, S., Latham, J. R., & Whyte, C. (2015). Understanding the experiences and needs of lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans Australians living with dementia, and their partners. Australasian Journal on Ageing, 34(S2), 34–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajag.12271

Bayles, K. A., Kim, E., Chapman, S. B., Zientz, J., Rackley, A., Mahendra, N., Hopper, T., & Cleary, S. J. (2006). Evidence-based practice recommendations for working with individuals with dementia: Simulated presence therapy. Journal of Medical Speech-Language Pathology, 14(3), xiii–xxi.

Bayles, K. A., & Tomoeda, C. K. (1993). Arizona Battery for Communication Disorders of Dementia. Pro-Ed.

Beckley, E. T. (2017, May). Patient wishes before risk: How do we honor patients’ decisions about their swallowing treatment when they have dementia—and there’s aspiration risk? The ASHA Leader, 22(5), 40–47. https://doi.org/10.1044/leader.FTR1.22052017.40

Benbow, S. M., & Jolley, D. (2012). Dementia: Stigma and its effects. Neurodegenerative Disease Management, 2(2), 165–172. https://doi.org/10.2217/nmt.12.7

Benigas, J. E., Brush, J. A., & Elliot, G. M. (2016). Spaced retrieval step by step: An evidence-based memory intervention. Health Professions Press.

Bharucha, A. J., Anand, V., Forlizzi, J., Dew, M. A., Reynolds, C. F., III, Stevens, S., & Wactlar, H. (2009). Intelligent assistive technology applications to dementia care: Current capabilities, limitations, and future challenges. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 17(2), 88–104. https://doi.org/10.1097/JGP.0b013e318187dde5

Bourgeois, M. S. (1990). Enhancing conversation skills in patients with Alzheimer’s disease using a prosthetic memory aid. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23(1), 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1990.23-29

Bourgeois, M. S. (1992a). Conversing with memory impaired individuals using memory aids: A memory aid workbook. Northern Speech Services.

Bourgeois, M. S. (1992b). Evaluating memory wallets in conversations with persons with dementia. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 35(6), 1344–1357. https://doi.org/10.1044/jshr.3506.1344

Bourgeois, M. S. (1994). Teaching caregivers to use memory aids with patients with dementia. Seminars in Speech and Language, 15(4), 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2008-1064152

Bourgeois, M. S. (2013). Memory books and other graphic cuing systems: Practical communication and memory aids for adults with dementia. Health Professions Press.

Bourgeois, M. S. (2015, November). Innovative treatments for persons with dementia [Paper presentation]. ASHA Research Symposium, Denver, CO, United States.

Bourgeois, M. S., Brush J., Elliot G., & Kelly, A. (2015). Join the revolution: How Montessori for aging and dementia can change long-term care culture. Seminars in Speech and Language, 36(03), 209–214. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1554802

Bourgeois, M. S., & Hickey, E. M. (2009). Dementia: From diagnosis to management—A functional approach. Psychological Press.

Brush, J. A., Calkins, M. P., Bruce, C., & Sanford, J. A. (2012). Environment & Communication Assessment Toolkit for Dementia Care. Health Professions Press.

Brush, J. A., & Camp, C. J. (1998). Using spaced retrieval as an intervention during speech-language therapy. Clinical Gerontologist, 19(1), 51–64.

Brush, J. A., & Norris, K. (2017). Getting started with Montessori (Vol. 1: Practical life activities for elders). Brush Development.

Brush, J., Sanford, J., Fleder, H., Bruce, C., & Calkins, M. (2011). Evaluating and modifying the communication environment for people with dementia. Perspectives on Gerontology, 16(2), 32–40. https://doi.org/10.1044/gero16.2.32

Chang, W.-Z. D., & Bourgeois, M. S. (2020). Effects of visual aids for end-of-life care on decisional capacity of people with dementia. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 29(1), 185–200. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_AJSLP-19-0028

Chapey, R., Duchan, J. F., Elman, R. J., Garcia, L. J., Kagan, A., Lyon, J. G., & Simmons Mackie, N. (2000, February). Life participation approach to aphasia: A statement of values for the future. The ASHA Leader, 5(3), 4–6. https://doi.org/10.1044/leader.FTR.05032000.4

Cipriani, G., Carlesi, C., Lucetti, C., Danti, S., & Nuti, A. (2016). Eating behaviors and dietary changes in patients with dementia. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease & Other Dementias, 31(8), 706–716. https://doi.org/10.1177/1533317516673155

Cohen, M. L., & Hula, W. D. (2020). Patient-reported outcomes and evidence-based practice in speech-language pathology. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 29(1), 357–370. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_AJSLP-19-00076

Collins, M. E. (2018). Occupational therapists’ experience with assistive technology in provision of service to clients with Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Geriatrics, 36(2–3), 179–188. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02703181.2018.1458770

Dawes, P., Littlejohn, J., Bott, A., Brennan, S., Burrow, S., Hopper, T., & Scanlan, E. (2022). Hearing assessment and rehabilitation for people living with dementia. Ear and Hearing, 43(4), 1089–1102. https://doi.org/10.1097/AUD.0000000000001174

Deal, J. A., Betz, J., Yaffe, K., Harris, T., Purchase-Helzner, E., Satterfield, S., Pratt, S., Govil, N., Simonsick, E. M., Lin, F. R., & Health ABC Study Group. (2017). Hearing impairment and incident dementia and cognitive decline in older adults: The Health ABC study. Journals of Gerontology: Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 72(5), 703–709. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glw069

De la Rosa, A., Olaso-Gonzalez, G., Arc-Chagnaud, C., Millan, F., Salvador-Pascual, A., García-Lucerga, C., Blasco-Lafarga, C., Garcia-Dominguez, E., Carretero, A., Correas, A. G., Viña, J., & Gomez-Cabrera, M. C. (2020). Physical exercise in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 9(5), 394–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2020.01.004

Desai, U., Chandler, J., Kirson, N., Georgieva, M., Cheung, H. C., Westermeyer, B., Lane, H., & Biglan, K. (2022). Epidemiology and economic burden of Lewy body dementia in the United States. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 38(7), 1177–1188. https://doi.org/10.1080/03007995.2022.2059978

De Stefano, A., Di Giovanni, P., Kulamarva, G., Gennachi, S., Di Fonzo, F., Sallustio, V., Patrocinio, D., Candido, S., Lamarca, G., & Dispenza, F. (2020. Oropharyngeal dysphagia in elderly population suffering from mild cognitive impairment and mild dementia: Understanding the link. American Journal of Otolaryngology, 41(4), Article 102501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjoto.2020.102501

Douglas, N. (2021). Adapting Montessori programming for aging and dementia with implementation strategies. Innovation in Aging, 5(Suppl. 1), 49. https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igab046.187

Douglas, N., Brush, J., & Bourgeois, M. (2018, July). Person-centered, skilled services using a Montessori approach for persons with dementia. Seminars in Speech and Language, 39(03), 223–230. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1660781

Elliot, G. M. (2015). Montessori methods for dementia: Focusing on the person & the prepared environment. Dementiability Enterprises.

Esponisa-Val, M. C., Martín-Martínez, A., Graupera, M., Arias, O., Elvira, A., Cabré, M., Palomera, E., Bolívar-Prados, M., Clavé, P., & Ortega, O. (2020). Prevalence, risk factors, and complications of oropharyngeal dysphagia in older patients with dementia. Nutrients, 12(3), 863. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030863

Exuzides, A., Reddy, S. R., Chang, E., Ta, J. T., Patel, A. M., Paydar, C., & Yohrling, G. J. (2022). Epidemiology of Huntington’s disease in the United States Medicare and Medicaid populations. Neuroepidemiology, 56(3), 192–200. https://doi.org/10.1159/000524732

Fadil, H., Borazanci, A., Ait Ben Haddou, E., Yahyaoui, M., Korniychuk, E., Jaffe, S. L., & Minagar, A. (2009). Early onset dementia. In A. Minagar (Ed.), Neurobiology of dementia (Vol. 84, pp. 245–262). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0074-7742(09)00413-9

Feil, N. (1982). V/F Validation®: The Feil method: How to help disoriented old-old. Edward Feil Productions.

Fiest, K. M., Jetté, N., Roberts, J. I., Maxwell, C. J., Smith, E. E., Black, S. E., Blaikie, L., Cohen, A., Day, L., Holroyd-Leduc, J., Kirk, A., Pearson, D., Pringsheim, T., Venegas-Torres, A., & Hogan, D. B. (2016). The prevalence and incidence of dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 43(Suppl. 1), S3–S50. https://doi.org/10.1017/cjn.2016.18

Fratiglioni, L., Marseglia, A., & Dekhtyar, S. (2020). Ageing without dementia: Can stimulating psychosocial and lifestyle experiences make a difference? The Lancet Neurology, 19(6), 533–543. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(20)30039-9

Freedman, V. A., & Cornman, J. C. (2023). National Health and Aging Trends Study chart book: Key trends, measures, and detailed tables, 2011–2021. https://micda.isr.umich.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/NHATS-Companion-Chartbook-to-Trends-Dashboards-2021.pdf [PDF]

Friedland, D., & Miller, N. (1999). Language mixing in bilingual speakers with Alzheimer’s dementia: A conversation analysis approach. Aphasiology, 13(4–5), 427–444. https://doi.org/10.1080/026870399402163

GBD 2019 Dementia Forecasting Collaborators. (2022). Estimation of the global prevalence of dementia in 2019 and forecasted prevalence in 2050: An analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The Lancet Public Health, 7(2), e105–e125. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(21)00249-8

Gilhooly, K. J., Gilhooly, M. L. M., Sullivan, M. P., McIntyre, A., Wilson, L., Harding, E., Woodbridge, R., & Crutch, S. (2016). A meta-review of stress, coping and interventions in dementia and dementia caregiving. BMC Geriatrics, 16, Article 106. https://bmcgeriatr.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12877-016-0280-8

Gillis, C., Mirzaei, F., Potashman, M., Ikram, M. A., & Maserejian, N. (2019). The incidence of mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review and data synthesis. Alzheimer’s & Dementia: Diagnosis, Assessment & Disease Monitoring, 11(1), 248–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dadm.2019.01.004

Green, R. C., Cupples, L. A., Go, R., Benke, K. S., Edeki, T., Griffith, P. A., Williams, M., Hipps, Y., Graff-Radford, N., Bachman, D., Farrer, L. A., & the MIRAGE Study Group. (2002). Risk of dementia among White and African American relatives of patients with Alzheimer disease. Journal of the American Medical Association, 287(3), 329–336. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.287.3.329

Groher, M. E. (2015). Issues and challenges in managing patients with dementia and dysphagia. Japanese Journal of Gerontology, 30(2), 61–67. https://doi.org/10.11259/jsg.30.61

Guzmán-Vélez, E., & Tranel, D. (2015). Does bilingualism contribute to cognitive reserve? Cognitive and neural perspectives. Neuropsychology, 29(1), 139–150. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000105

Hanson, L. C., Ersek, M., Lin, F. C., & Carey, T. S. (2013). Outcomes of feeding problems in advanced dementia in a nursing home population. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 61(10), 1692–1697. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.12448

Hart, V. R., Gallagher-Thompson, D., Davies, H. D., DiMinno, M., & Lessin, P. J. (1996). Strategies for increasing participation of ethnic minorities in Alzheimer’s disease diagnostic centers: A multifaceted approach in California. The Gerontologist, 36(2), 259–262. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/36.2.259

Hegde, M. N. (2006). A coursebook on aphasia and other neurogenic language disorders. Thomson Delmar Learning.

Hendriks, S., Peetoom, K., Bakker, C., van der Flier, W. M., Papma, J. M., Koopmans, R., Verhey, F. R. J., de Vugt, M., Köhler, S., & the Young-Onset Dementia Epidemiology Study Group. (2021). Global prevalence of young-onset dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Neurology, 78(9), 1080–1090. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2021.2161

Hendriks, S., Peetoom, K., Bakker, C., Koopmans, R., van der Flier, W., Papma, J., Verhey, F., the Young-Onset Dementia Epidemiology Study Group, de Vugt, M., & Köhler, S. (2022). Global incidence of young-onset dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Alzheimer's & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer’s Association, 19(3), 741–1108. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.12695

Hickey, E. M., & Bourgeois, M. S. (2018). Cognitive and communicative interventions. In E. M. Hickey & M. S. Bourgeois (Eds.), Dementia: Person-centered assessment and intervention (pp. 168–213). Routledge.

Hickey, E. M., Cleary, S., Coulter, P., & Bourgeois, M. S. (2018). Eating and swallowing. In E. M. Hickey & M. S. Bourgeois (Eds.), Dementia: Person-centered assessment and intervention (pp. 260–299). Routledge.

Hickey, E. M., Khayum, B., & Bourgeois, M. S. (2018). Assessment of cognition, communication, and behavior. In E. M. Hickey & M. S. Bourgeois (Eds.), Dementia: Person-centered assessment and intervention (pp. 113–167). Routledge.

Hinton, W. L., Fox, K., & Levkoff, S. (1999). Introduction: Exploring the relationships among aging, ethnicity, and family dementia caregiving. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 23(4), 403–413. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005514501883

Hitch, S. (1994). Cognitive therapy as a tool for caring for the elderly confused person. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 3(1), 49–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2702.1994.tb00358.x

Huckans, M., Hutson, L., Twamley, E., Jak, A., Kaye, J., & Storzbach, D. (2013). Efficacy of cognitive rehabilitation therapies for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in older adults: Working toward a theoretical model and evidence-based interventions. Neuropsychology Review, 23(1), 63–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-013-9230-9

Jefferies, K., & Agrawal, N. (2009). Early-onset dementia. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 15(5), 380–388. https://doi.org/10.1192/apt.bp.107.004572

Jensen, G. L., Compher, C., Sullivan, D. H., & Mullin, G. E. (2013). Recognizing malnutrition in adults: Definitions and characteristics, screening, assessment, and team approach. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition, 37(6), 802–807. https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607113492338

Knopman, D. S., & Roberts, R. O. (2011). Estimating the number of persons with frontotemporal lobar degeneration in the U.S. population. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 45(3), 330–335. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12031-011-9538-y

Kokorelias, K. M., Ryan, E. B., & Elliot, G. (2017). Innovative practice: Conversational use of English in bilingual adults with dementia. Dementia, 16(2), 233–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/1471301216635827

Lanzi, A., & Bourgeois, M. S. (2020). Structured external memory aid treatment for mild cognitive impairment. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 29(1S), 474–484. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_AJSLP-CAC48-18-0209

Lanzi, A. M., Ellison, J. M., & Cohen, M. L. (2021). The “counseling+” roles of the speech-language pathologist serving older adults with mild cognitive impairment and dementia from Alzheimer’s disease. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 6(5), 987–1002. https://doi.org/10.1044/2021_PERSP-20-00295

Lanzi, A. M., Wallace, S. E., Cohen, M. L., & Bourgeois, M. S. (2022). Structured External Memory Aid Treatment (SEMAT) for older adults with mild cognitive impairment: Long-term adherence and acceptability of treatment. Aphasiology, 36(2), 234–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/02687038.2020.1868395

Lanzi, A. M., Saylor, A. K., Fromm, D., Liu, H., MacWhinney, B., & Cohen, M. L. (2023). DementiaBank: Theoretical rationale, protocol, and illustrative analyses. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 32(2), 426–438. https://doi.org/10.1044/2022_AJSLP-22-00281

Lee, K. M., & Song, J.-A. (2015). Factors influencing the degree of eating ability among people with dementia. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 24(11–12), 1707–1717. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.12777

Lewsen, B. J., & Cashman, M. (1997). Hearing aids and assistive listening devices in long-term care. Canadian Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology, 21(3), 149–152. https://www.cjslpa.ca/files/1997_JSLPA_Vol_21/No_03_145-228/Lewsen_Cashman_JSLPA_1997.pdf [PDF]

Lin, F. R., & Albert, M. (2014). Hearing loss and dementia—Who is listening? Aging & Mental Health, 18(6), 671–673. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2014.915924

Lin, F. R., Metter, E. J., O’Brien, R. J., Resnick, S. M., Zonderman, A. B., & Ferrucci, L. (2011). Hearing loss and incident dementia. Archives of Neurology, 68(2), 214–220. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneurol.2010.362

Lin, F. R., Yaffe, K., Xia, J., Xue, Q.-L., Harris, T. B., Purchase-Helzner, E., Satterfield, S., Ayonayon, H. N., Ferruci, L., Simonsick, E. M., & the Health ABC Study Group. (2013).

Hearing loss and cognitive decline in older adults. JAMA Internal Medicine, 173(4), 293–299. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.1868

Lobbia, A., Carbone, E., Faggian, S., Gardini, S., Piras, F., Spector, A., & Borella, E. (2019). The efficacy of cognitive stimulation therapy (CST) for people with mild-to-moderate dementia: A review. European Psychologist, 24(3), 257. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000342

Lindenberger, U., & Baltes, P. B. (1994). Sensory functioning and intelligence in old age: A strong connection. Psychology and Aging, 9(3), 339–355. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.9.3.339

Livingston, G., Sommerlad, A., Orgeta, V., Costafreda, S. G., Huntley, J., Ames, D., Ballard, C., Banerjee, S., Burns, A., Cohen-Mansfield, J., Cooper, C., Fox, N., Gitlin, L. N., Howard, R., Kales, H. C., Larson, E. B., Ritchie, K., Rockwood, K., Sampson., E. L., . . .Mukadam, N. (2017). Dementia prevention, intervention, and care. The Lancet, 390(10113), 2673–2734. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31363-6

Livingston, G., Huntley, J., Sommerlad, A., Ames, D., Ballard, C., Banerjee, S., Brayne, C., Burns, A., Cohen-Mansfield, J., Cooper, C., Costafreda, S. G., Dias, A., Fox, N., Gitlin, L. N., Howard, R., Kales, H. C., Kivimäki, M., Larson, E. B., Ogunniyi, A., . . . Mukadam, N. (2020). Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2020 report of the Lancet Commission. The Lancet, 396(10248), 413–446. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30367-6

Loughrey, D. G., Kelly, M. E., Kelley, G. A., Brennan, S., & Lawlor, B. A. (2018). Association of age-related hearing loss with cognitive function, cognitive impairment, and dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery, 144(2), 115–126. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaoto.2017.2513

Lovestone, S. (1999). Early diagnosis and the clinical genetics of Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Neurology, 246(2), 69–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004150050310

Low, L.-F., Draper, B., Cheng, A., Cruysmans, B., Hayward-Wright, N., Jeon, Y.-H., LoGiudice, D., Wu, H. Z. Y., Zogalis, G., & Brodaty, H. (2009). Future research on dementia relating to culturally and linguistically diverse communities. Australasian Journal on Ageing, 28(3), 144–148. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-6612.2009.00373.x

Mahendra, N., & Hopper, T. (2013). Dementia and related cognitive disorders. In I. Papathanasiou, P. Coppens, & C. Potagas (Eds.), Aphasia and related neurogenic communication disorders (pp. 397–430). Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Martini, A., Castiglione, A., Bovo, R., Vallesi, A., & Gabelli, C. (2015). Aging, cognitive load, dementia and hearing loss. Audiology & Neurotology, 19(Suppl. 1), 2–5. https://doi.org/10.1159/000371593

Masellis, M., Sherborn, K., Neto, P. R., Sadovnick, D. A., Hsiung, G.-Y. R., Black, S. E., Prasad, S., Williams, M., & Gauthier, S. (2013). Early-onset dementias: Diagnostic and etiological considerations. Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy, 5(Suppl. 1), Article S7. https://alzres.biomedcentral.com/counter/pdf/10.1186/alzrt197.pdf [PDF]

McGovern, J. (2014). The forgotten: Dementia and the aging LGBT community. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 57(8), 845–857. https://doi.org/10.1080/01634372.2014.900161

McMurtray, A., Clark, D. G., Christine, D., & Mendez, M. F. (2006). Early-onset dementia: Frequency and causes compared to late-onset dementia. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 21(2), 59–64. https://doi.org/10.1159/000089546

Mendez, M. F., Perryman, K. M., Pontón, M. O., & Cummings, J. L. (1999). Bilingualism and dementia. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 11(3), 411–412. https://doi.org/10.1176/jnp.11.3.411

Michel, A., Vérin, E., Gbaguidi, X., Druesne, L., Roca, F., & Chassagne, P. (2018). Oropharyngeal dysphagia in community-dwelling older patients with dementia: Prevalence and relationship with geriatric parameters. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 19(9), 770–774. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2018.04.011

Mitchell, G. J. (1987). An analysis of the communication process and content with confused elderly clients during validation therapy [Unpublished master’s thesis]. University of Toronto.

Mueller, K. D., Hermann, B., Mecollari, J., & Turkstra, L. S. (2018). Connected speech and language in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease: A review of picture description tasks. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 40(9), 917–939. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2018.1446513

Müller-Spahn, F. (2003). Behavioral disturbances in dementia. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 5(1), 49–59. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2003.5.1/fmuellerspahn

Namasivayam-MacDonald, A. M., Barbon, C. E. A., & Steele, C. M. (2018). A review of swallow timing in the elderly. Physiology & Behavior, 184(1), 12–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.10.023

National Institute on Aging. (2017). What causes Alzheimer’s disease? https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/what-causes-alzheimers-disease

National Institutes of Health. (2019). Lewy body dementia: Information for patients, families, and professionals (Rev. ed.). LuLu Press.

Neal, M., & Wright, P. B. (2003). Validation therapy for dementia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD001394

Nguyen, T. P. P., Bravo, L., Gonzalez-Alegre, P., & Willis, A. W. (2022). Geographic barriers drive disparities in specialty center access for older adults with Huntington’s disease. Journal of Huntington’s Disease, 11(1), 81–89. https://doi.org/10.3233/JHD-210489

Obuchi, C., Harashima, T., & Shiroma, M. (2011). Age-related changes in auditory and cognitive abilities in elderly persons with hearing aids fitted at the initial stages of hearing loss. Audiology Research, 1(1), e11. https://doi.org/10.4081/audiores.2011.e11

Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1987, Pub. L. No. 100-203, 483.15 Stat. 161–163 (1987).

Onyike, C. U., & Diehl-Schmid, J. (2013). The epidemiology of frontotemporal dementia. International Review of Psychiatry, 25(2), 130–137. https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2013.776523

Opdebeeck, C., Martyr, A., & Clare, L. (2016). Cognitive reserve and cognitive function in healthy older people: A meta-analysis. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 23(1), 40–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2015.1041450

Orrell, M., Aguirre, E., Spector, A., Hoare, Z., Woods, R. T., Streater, A., Donovan, H., Hoe, J., Knapp, M., Whitaker, C., & Russell, I. (2014). Maintenance cognitive stimulation therapy for dementia: Single-blind, multicentre, pragmatic randomised controlled trial. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 204(6), 454–461. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.113.137414

Pachana, N. A., & Gallagher-Thompson, D. (2018). The importance of attention to cultural factors in the approach to dementia care services for older persons. Clinical Gerontologist, 41(3), 181–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/07317115.2018.1438875

Palmer, C. V., Adams, S. W., Bourgeois, M., Durrant, J., & Rossi, M. (1999). Reduction in caregiver-identified problem behaviors in patients with Alzheimer disease post-hearing-aid fitting. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42(2), 312–328. https://doi.org/10.1044/jslhr.4202.312

Pappadà, A., Chattat, R., Chirico, I., Valente, M., & Ottoboni, G. (2021). Assistive technologies in dementia care: An updated analysis of the literature. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 644587. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.644587

Parker, J., Young, A., & Rogers, K. (2010). “My mum’s story”: A deaf daughter discusses her deaf mother’s experience of dementia. Dementia, 9(1), 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/1471301209353987

Peelle, J. E., Troiani, V., Grossman, M., & Wingfield, A. (2011). Hearing loss in older adults affects neural systems supporting speech comprehension. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31(35), 12638–12643. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2559-11.2011

Petersen, R. C., Caracciolo, B., Brayne, C., Gauthier, S., Jelic, V., & Fratiglioni, L. (2014). Mild cognitive impairment: A concept in evolution. Journal of Internal Medicine, 275(3), 214–228. https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.12190

Pichora-Fuller, M. K., Dupuis, K., Reed, M., & Lemke, U. (2013). Helping older people with cognitive decline communicate: Hearing aids as part of a broader rehabilitation approach. Seminars in Hearing, 34(04), 308–330. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0033-1356643

Plassman, B. L., Langa, K. M., Fisher, G. G., Heeringa, S. G., Weir, D. R., Ofstedal, M. B., Burke, J. R., Hurd, M. D., Potter, G. G., Rodgers, W. L., Steffens, D. C., Willis, R. J., & Wallace, R. B. (2007). Prevalence of dementia in the United States: The Aging, Demographics, and Memory Study. Neuroepidemiology, 29(1–2), 125–132. https://doi.org/10.1159/000109998

Qualls, C. D. (2005). Neurobiology of normal aging, mild cognitive impairment, and Alzheimer’s disease: A tutorial. Perspectives on Gerontology, 10(1), 2–7. https://doi.org/10.1044/gero10.1.2

Rabin, L. A., Paré, N., Saykin, A. J., Brown, M. J., Wishart, H. A., Flashman, L. A., & Santulli, R. B. (2009). Differential memory test sensitivity for diagnosing amnestic mild cognitive impairment and predicting conversion to Alzheimer’s disease. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 16(3), 357–376. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825580902825220

Raggi, A., Tasca, D., Panerai, S., Neri, W., & Ferri, R. (2015). The burden of distress and related coping processes in family caregivers of patients with Alzheimer’s disease living in the community. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 358(1–2), 77–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2015.08.024

Ray, M., Dening, T., & Crosbie, B. (2019). Dementia and hearing loss: A narrative review. Maturitas, 128, 64–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2019.08.001

Regan, J. L. (2014). Redefining dementia care barriers for ethnic minorities: The religion–culture distinction. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 17(4), 345–353. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2013.805404

Rogus-Pulia, N., Malandraki, G. A., Johnson, S., & Robbins, J. (2015). Understanding dysphagia in dementia: The present and the future. Current Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Reports, 3, 86–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40141-015-0078-1

Rossor, M. N., Fox, N. C., Mummery, C. J., Schott, J. M., & Warren, J. D. (2010). The diagnosis of young-onset dementia. The Lancet Neurology, 9(8), 793–806. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70159-9

Schneider, J. A. (2022). Neuropathology of dementia disorders. Continuum: Lifelong Learning in Neurology, 28(3), 834–851. https://doi.org/10.1212/CON.0000000000001137

Snyder, C. M., Fauth, E., Wanzek, J., Piercy, K. W., Norton, M. C., Corcoran, C., Rabins, P. V., Lyketsos, C. G., & Tschanz, J. T. (2015). Dementia caregivers’ coping strategies and their relationship to health and well-being: The Cache County Study. Aging & Mental Health, 19(5), 390–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2014.939610

Sohlberg, M. M., & Turkstra, L. S. (2011). Optimizing cognitive rehabilitation: Effective instructional methods. Guilford Press.

Song, Y., Hoben, M., Weeks, L., Boström, A.-M., Goodarzi, Z. S., Squires, J., Doan, H., Wagg, A., Reid, R. C., & Estabrooks, C. (2019). Factors associated with the responsive behaviours of older adults living in long-term care homes towards staff: A systematic review protocol. BMJ Open, 9(5), Article e028416. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-028416

Sriram, V., Jenkinson, C., & Peters, M. (2019). Informal carers’ experience of assistive technology use in dementia care at home: A systematic review. BMC Geriatrics, 19(1), Article 160. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-019-1169-0

Stahl, S. M. (2017). Does treating hearing loss prevent or slow the progress of dementia? Hearing is not all in the ears, but who’s listening? CNS Spectrums, 22(3), 247–250. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852917000268

Stern, Y. (2009). Cognitive reserve. Neuropsychologia, 47(10), 2015–2028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004

Takayama, Y. (2010). A delayed recall battery as a sensitive screening for mild cognitive impairment: Follow-up study of memory clinic patients after 10 years. Journal of Medical and Dental Sciences, 57(2), 177–184. https://doi.org/10.11480/jmds.570207

Thomson, R. S., Auduong, P., Miller, A. T., & Gurgel, R. K. (2017). Hearing loss as a risk factor for dementia: A systematic review. Laryngoscope Investigative Otolaryngology, 2(2), 69–79. https://doi.org/10.1002/lio2.65

Tsolaki, M., Kounti, F., Agogiatou, C., Poptsi, E., Bakoglidou, E., Zafeiropoulou, M., Soumbourou, A., Nikolaidou, E., Batsila, G., Siambani, A., Nakou, S., Mouzakidis, C., Tsiakiri, A., Zafeiropoulos, S., Karagiozi, K., Messini, C., Diamantidou, A., & Vasiloglou, M. (2011). Effectiveness of nonpharmacological approaches in patients with mild cognitive impairment. Neurodegenerative Diseases, 8(3), 138–145. https://doi.org/10.1159/000320575

Tun, P. A., McCoy, S., & Wingfield, A. (2009). Aging, hearing acuity, and the attentional costs of effortful listening. Psychology and Aging, 24(3), 761–766. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014802

van Vliet, D., de Vugt, M. E., Bakker, C., Koopmans, R. T. C. M., Pijnenburg, Y. A. L., Vernooij-Dassen, M. J. F. J., & Verhey, F. R. J. (2011). Caregivers’ perspectives on the pre-diagnostic period in early onset dementia: A long and winding road. International Psychogeriatrics, 23(9), 1393–1404. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610211001013

Voyzey, G. A. (2010). Feeding and swallowing strategies for the individual with dementia. Perspectives on Gerontology, 15(2), 48–53. https://doi.org/10.1044/gero15.2.48

Voyzey, G. A. (2015). Meeting the cultural, therapeutic, and individual needs of the lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgendered patient. Perspectives on Gerontology, 20(3), 85–103. https://doi.org/10.1044/gero20.3.85

Wechsler, D. (2009). Wechsler Memory Scale (4th ed.). Pearson.

Whitlatch, C. J., & Feinberg, L. F. (2003). Planning for the future together in culturally diverse families: Making everyday care decisions. Alzheimer’s Care Quarterly, 4(1), 50–61. https://journals.lww.com/actjournalonline/abstract/
2003/01000/planning_for_the_future_together_in_culturally.7.aspx

Williams, S. W., & Harvey, I. S. (2013). Culture, race, and SES: Application to end of life decision making for African American caregivers. Perspectives on Gerontology, 18(2), 69–76. https://doi.org/10.1044/gero18.2.69

Winchester, J., & Winchester, C. G. (2015). Cognitive dysphagia and effectively managing the five systems. Perspectives on Gerontology, 20(3), 116–132. https://doi.org/10.1044/gero20.3.116

Winslow, B. W., & Flaskerud, J. H. (2009). Deciding to place a relative in long-term care: “We really don’t do that.” Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 30(3), 197–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/01612840802694627

Wolters, F. J., van der Lee, S. J., Koudstaal, P. J., van Duijn, C. M., Hofman, A., Ikram, M. K., Vernooij, M. W., & Ikram, M. A. (2017). Parental family history of dementia in relation to subclinical brain disease and dementia risk. Neurology, 88(17), 1642–1649. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000003871

Woods, B., Aguirre, E., Spector, A. E., & Orrell, M. (2012). Cognitive stimulation to improve cognitive functioning in people with dementia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. https://doi.org//10.1002/14651858.CD005562.pub2

World Health Organization. (2001). International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health. https://www.who.int/standards/classifications/international-classification-of-functioning-disability-and-health

World Health Organization. (2023). Dementia: Fact sheet. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia

Wu, H.-S., & Lin, L.-C. (2015). Comparing cognition, mealtime performance, and nutritional status in people with dementia with or without ideational apraxia. Biological Research for Nursing, 17(2), 199–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/1099800414536773

Yang, W., Hamilton, J. L., Kopil, C., Beck, J. C., Tanner, C. M., Albin, R. L., Ray Dorsey, E., Dahodwala, N., Cintina, I., Hogan, P., & Thompson, T. (2020). Current and projected future economic burden of Parkinson’s disease in the U.S. npj Parkinson’s Disease, 6, Article 15. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41531-020-0117-1

Yous, M.-L., Ploeg, J., Kaasalainen, S., & Martin, L. S. (2019). Nurses’ experiences in caring for older adults with responsive behaviors of dementia in acute care. SAGE Open Nursing, 5, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/2377960819834127

Zientz, J., Rackley, A., Chapman, S. B., Hopper, T., Mahendra, N., & Kim, E. S. (2007). Evidence-based practice recommendations for dementia: Educating caregivers on Alzheimer’s disease and training communication strategies. Journal of Medical Speech-Language Pathology, 15(1), 53–64. https://bit.ly/3sa2939

Zissimopoulos, J. M., Tysinger, B. C., St Clair, P. A., & Crimmins, E. M. (2018). The impact of changes in population health and mortality on future prevalence of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias in the United States. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 73(Suppl. 1), S38–S47. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbx147

Acknowledgments

Content for ASHA’s Practice Portal is developed through a comprehensive process that includes multiple rounds of subject matter expert input and review. ASHA extends its gratitude to the following subject matter experts who were involved in the development of the Dementia page.

• Alfredo Ardila, PhD
• Kathryn Bayles, PhD, CCC-SLP
• Michelle S. Bourgeois, PhD, CCC-SLP
• Jennifer A. Brush, MA, CCC-SLP
• Natalie F. Douglas, PhD, CCC-SLP
• Amber Heape, ClinScD, CCC-SLP
• Victoria Cruce Hollar, MS, CCC-SLP
• Tammy L. Hopper, PhD, CCC-SLP
• Alyssa Lanzi, PhD., CCC-SLP
• Mary Beth Mason-Baughman, PhD, CCC-SLP
• Joan C. Payne, PhD, CCC-SLP
• Kathy Pichora-Fuller, PhD
• Nichloas Reed, AuD, PhD, CCC-A
• Barbara E. Weinstein, PhD, CCC-A

In addition, ASHA thanks the members of the Ad Hoc Committee on Dementia whose work was foundational to the development of this content. Members of the committee included Kathryn Bayles, Michelle Bourgeois, Tammy Hopper, Danielle Ripich (chair), Susan Rowe, and Amy Hasselkus (ex officio). Celia Hooper, ASHA vice president for professional practices in speech-language pathology (2003–2005), served as monitoring vice president.

Citing Practice Portal Pages

The recommended citation for this Practice Portal page is:

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.). Dementia [Practice portal]. https://www.asha.org/Practice-Portal/Clinical-Topics/Dementia/